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Eagles of the Balkans
Part 2
by Melissa Snell
This is the conclusion of a two-part feature, the first part of which appeared here on April 19th.
In 1389 a coalition of Balkan forces, led by Prince Lazar of Serbia, met the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Kosovo Field. Although essentially they fought for control of their homelands, the issue of defending Christian Europe from Muslim invaders was also at stake. Unfortunately, the coalition was no match for the invaders. Every last Bosnian, Hungarian, Serb and Albanian who fought against the Turks at Kosovo died.
Life for Christians in the Ottoman Empire was not necessarily oppressive. Although the tax imposed upon them was higher than that for Muslims, Christians were exempt from military service and could even achieve high positions in government. It was more advantageous, however, to convert to Islam, for in so doing one would join the ummah, the faithful, and thus attain the privileges of the ruling class. Yet most Balkan groups, including the Albanians and Serbs, remained Christian, and scattered resistance to Ottoman rule continued for decades.
Then came Gjergj Kastrioti, a military leader of extraordinary abilities who became known as Skanderbeg. In 1443 he rallied Albanian forces and drove the Turks from his homeland. For 25 years, against tremendous odds, Skanderbeg kept the Turks from retaking Albania, which, due to its proximity to Italy, could easily have served as a springboard to the rest of Europe. After Skanderbeg's death resistance gradually dissolved, and Albania was once again subjugated by the Ottoman Empire. This conquest resulted in the devastation of Albania's economy and culture. About a quarter of the population fled to Italy, Sicily, and the Dalmatian coast.
Though now lacking Skanderbeg's leadership, the Albanians remained troublesome enough to provoke the Turks into a concerted effort to Islamize the population. Through a combination of crushing taxes, restrictive laws, and violent persecutions, the Turks pressured Albanians to convert to Islam, and over the course of about 150 years, two thirds of the population did so. However, this did not achieve the desired effect; the Ottoman government never exercised full control over Albania. Although some Albanians rose to positions of prominence within the empire, including that of Grand Vizier, others, particularly those in the highlands, did not pay taxes, serve in the army, or surrender their arms.
As early as the sixteenth century, a new name for their home evolved among Albanian people: "Shquipëria," land of the eagles. The name probably has its origins in the Kastrioti family crest. But more significantly, the image of the eagle was a potent symbol that represented an independent culture, reflecting the strength and individuality that is characteristic of Albanians throughout their history. Despite all attempts by the Turks to suppress any signs of a separate cultural identity, the image would survive, and would one day serve as the basis for the Albanian flag.
In the nineteenth century, as Ottoman power began to decline, a nationalist movement arose. Leaders tried, unsucessfully, to unite the four regions where Albanians resided under Ottoman rule, and strove to promote the development of Albanian literature and education. When the Congress of Berlin divided up former Ottoman lands among Balkan peoples and failed to allocate any to the Albanians, an uprising ensued. Eventually, the Turks and the western powers were forced to recognize Albania as a distinct political entity. Yet, partly because of the extreme significance that the Serbs had come to attach to Kosovo, that region became part of Serbia, in spite of the fact that the greater majority of its inhabitants were Albanians. The stage was set for the ethnic tensions and violence that would lead to World War I and continue on into the 1990's.
For much of their history, the Albanian people have been subject to invasion, persecution, isolation, and displacement. They have undergone political, religious, and geographical divisions that threatened to destroy their cultural cohesiveness. Yet in spite of these divisive forces they have managed to maintain a distinct and strongly independent identity. The Eagles of the Balkans continue to survive, and much can be learned from their past as we look toward the future.
For useful links, graphics, and a hyperlinked book list, please return to the regular feature.
Sources and Suggested Reading
The Albanians: An Ethnic History from Prehistoric Times to the
Present
by Edwin E. Jacques
Though covering an extensive period of time, Jacques also manages to
provide significant detail and draws from substantial sources.
Kosovo: A Short History
by Noel Malcolm
Offering new evidence and some controversial theories, Malcolm takes
a fresh look at this highly volatile area. Includes an excellent
bibliography.
The Three-Arched Bridge
by Ismail Kadare; translated by John Hodgson
An extraordinary novel set in medieval Albania chronicles the
construction of a bridge, which serves as an allegory for political
developments both then and now.
Long Life to Your Children: A Portrait of High Albania
by Marjorie Senechal; photographed by Stan Sherer
This photographic encounter with the Albanian people is well-written
and provides enlightening background on Albanian culture.
Perspectives on Albania
edited by Tom Winnifrith
Nine papers from a 1988 conference cover Albanian history from
prehistoric to modern times, focusing on the retention of Albanian
culture through an extended diaspora.
The Times Atlas of World History
edited by Geoffrey Barraclough
Excellent reference work of beautifully-presented historical
maps.
Eagles of the Balkans, part 2 is copyright © 1999-2003 Melissa Snell. Permission is granted to reproduce this article for personal or classroom use only, provided that the URL below is included. For reprint permission, please contact Melissa Snell.
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