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Conquest, Part I: Oft-Invaded England
by Melissa Snell
The British Isles had long been a favored target for conquest. As far back as the 8th century B.C. the Celts had crossed the channel to take advantage of the vast forests and rich grazing land the islands offered. In 55 B.C. Julius Caesar made his first invasion, and over time a Roman society evolved.
In the fifth century A.D. more invaders arrived, and the Roman Britons, on their own since the western Roman empire had begun to dissolve, were ill-equipped to repel them. It is even possible that some were invited by a Briton king to help fight the Picts in Scotland. Whatever motivated them and however they came, the various groups that settled over the course of the next few decades were not a single, homogenous unit, although most--perhaps even all--spoke a similar language. In his history, the Venerable Bede tells us of Angles, Saxons and Jutes (from Jutland), but these were by no means the only tribes who descended on Britain.
There is scant evidence available concerning the Anglo-Saxon invasion or life in England during this unsettled time. Various societies rose and fell, until by the 7th century England was a collection of seven primary kingdoms, which historians sometimes call the heptarchy. The kings were frequently at war with one another as they jostled for supremacy, yet at the same time monasteries were established and there was even a cultural renaissance in Northumbria.
In the late eighth century the Viking raids began. At first, these were hit-and-run affairs in which Scandinavian raiders would attack ill-defended coastal towns or monasteries and sail home with their booty. The plundering expeditions were followed by serious conquest and settlement efforts on the part of the Danes. By the late ninth century, the invaders had set up a large territory inside England that became known as the Danelaw.
So powerful were these Scandinavian invaders that only one English king, Alfred the Great of Wessex, was able to resist them with any success. In the process of fighting off the Danes, Alfred was able to unite much of England under his rule. His work was continued by his son and successor, Edward I (the "Elder"), then by Edward's successor Aethelstan. Eventually, nearly all of the Danelaw was recovered. England was at last a unified nation, though it encompassed a variety of cultures and included Scandinavian people and traditions.
The peace that followed this unification did not last long: once again Scandinavian invaders set their sights on Britain. This time Olaf Tryggvason of Norway and King Svein Forkbeard of Denmark joined forces to attack Southeast England, then attempted to take London, where they were repulsed and bought off. Svein would return, and in the meantime other armies harassed the British Isles. Though the English King, Aethelred the Unready, raised armies and assembled fleets, rarely were the invaders defeated. Instead they were paid in tributes that became so frequent they evolved into a regular tax known as the Danegeld.
In 1013 Svein made a serious effort at conquest, and after Aethelred fled to his relatives in Normandy, Svein became, nominally, King of England. However, he died before he could be crowned, and although his son Cnut (or "Canute") was chosen by the army to succeed him, the English aristocracy sent for Aethelred. He returned and successfully resisted the Danes until his death in 1016, whereupon his son Edmund Ironside took up the crown, only to die in November of that year. The kingdom of England thus fell to Cnut, the Danish king.
The reign of Cnut was a relatively stable one and resulted in the beginnings of an empire. However, while Cnut built up his holdings in Denmark, he allowed the English earls a certain amount of autonomy that ultimately weakened the English monarchy. His empire did not survive him long; Cnut's sons Harald and Harthacanute took the crown and died in quick succession. Harthacanute named as his successor his half-brother Edward, the pious younger son of Aethelred, who would become known as Edward the Confessor, and the rule of England was returned to English hands.
Though Edward was half-English by blood, he was in many respects a thorough Norman. Raised mostly in Normandy and speaking French by preference, he brought Norman nobles with him when he took up the English throne and installed them in positions of power. Although the Norman connection was by no means the only political relationship the English had to deal with during Edward's reign, in it can be seen the seeds of the later Norman Conquest.
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Please return for Part Two of Conquest, or check out our Table of Contents. And be sure to test your knowledge at our Quest for Conquest Quiz. |
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Conquest, Part I: Oft-Invaded England is copyright © 1999-2003 Melissa Snell. Permission is granted to reproduce this article for personal or classroom use only, provided that the URL below is included. For reprint permission, please contact Melissa Snell.
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